Prisoners of War in Islam
The Islamic treatment of prisoners of war reveals much about the religion's character and values. Unlike modern international humanitarian law, which seeks to protect the rights and dignity of captives, Islamic law views prisoners of war primarily as property to be distributed, sold, ransomed, or executed at the discretion of the Muslim commander. The Quran, hadith, and centuries of Islamic jurisprudence establish a framework that denies fundamental human rights to those captured in jihad.
Quranic Teachings on Captives
The Quran addresses the treatment of prisoners of war in several passages, most directly in Surah 8, revealed after the Battle of Badr. Before examining specific verses, it's important to understand the context: Muhammad's forces captured approximately 70 Meccan prisoners at Badr, creating the first test case for how Muslims should handle captives.
"It is not for a prophet to have captives [of war] until he inflicts a massacre [upon Allah's enemies] in the land. You [Muslims] desire the commodities of this world, but Allah desires [for you] the Hereafter. And Allah is Exalted in Might and Wise." (Quran 8:67)
This verse, which classical commentators agree was revealed after Badr, criticizes Muhammad for taking prisoners for ransom rather than killing them all. The passage continues:
"If not for a decree from Allah that preceded, you would have been touched by a great punishment for what you took [of captives]. So consume what you have taken of war booty [as being] lawful and good, and fear Allah. Indeed, Allah is Forgiving and Merciful." (Quran 8:68-69)
The most explicit Quranic directive on prisoners of war appears in Surah 47:
"So when you meet those who disbelieve [in battle], strike [their] necks until, when you have inflicted slaughter upon them, then secure their bonds, and either [confer] favor afterwards or ransom [them] until the war lays down its burdens. That [is the command]. And if Allah had willed, He could have taken vengeance upon them [Himself], but [He ordered armed struggle] to test some of you by means of others. And those who are killed in the cause of Allah - never will He waste their deeds." (Quran 47:4)
This verse establishes the basic options for dealing with captives: execution or enslavement (either for ransom or permanent bondage). Islamic jurists debating this passage developed four permissible options for prisoners of war: (1) execution, (2) enslavement, (3) ransom, or (4) release without ransom as a show of favor. The choice is left to the Muslim commander's discretion, with no rights granted to the captives themselves.
Muhammad's Treatment of Prisoners
The hadith literature preserves numerous examples of how Muhammad dealt with captives, establishing the prophetic sunna (example) for Muslims to follow. These accounts range from mercy to horrific brutality.
The Banu Qurayza Massacre
The most infamous example occurred after the siege of the Jewish tribe of Banu Qurayza in 627 CE. After their surrender, Muhammad appointed Sa'd ibn Mu'adh to judge their fate.
"Sa'd said, 'I give the judgment that their warriors should be killed and their children and women should be taken as prisoners.' The Prophet then remarked, 'O Sa'd! You have judged amongst them with (or similar to) the judgment of the King Allah.'" (Sahih al-Bukhari 4:52:280)
What followed was mass execution. The men and adolescent boys of Banu Qurayza were beheaded in groups, with trenches dug in the marketplace of Medina to receive their bodies. The estimates range from 600 to 900 executed. The women and children were enslaved and distributed among the Muslims, with some sold to purchase weapons and horses.
"Then the apostle divided the property, wives, and children of Banu Qurayza among the Muslims... Then the apostle sent Sa'd ibn Zayd with some of the captive women of Banu Qurayza to Najd and he sold them for horses and weapons." (Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah)
One woman, Rayhana bint Amr, was taken by Muhammad as a concubine. According to some accounts, she refused to convert to Islam or marry him, remaining his slave until her death.
The Execution of Prisoners After Badr
After the Battle of Badr, Muhammad ordered the execution of two prominent prisoners, Uqba ibn Abu Mu'ayt and al-Nadr ibn al-Harith, despite the general decision to ransom captives. Both men had mocked Muhammad in Mecca.
"When the apostle ordered him to be killed, Uqba said, 'But who will look after my children, O Muhammad?' [Muhammad replied] 'Hell.' He was killed by Ali... The apostle had ordered that al-Nadr should be killed... So Ali killed him, according to what Abu Ja'far ibn al-Zubayr told me." (Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah)
Torture to Extract Wealth
After the conquest of the Jewish settlement of Khaybar, Muhammad had the treasurer Kinana ibn al-Rabi' tortured to reveal the location of hidden wealth.
"Kinana ibn al-Rabi', who had the custody of the treasure of Banu al-Nadir, was brought to the apostle who asked him about it. He denied that he knew where it was. A Jew came to the apostle and said that he had seen Kinana going round a certain ruin every morning early. When the apostle said to Kinana, 'Do you know that if we find you have it I shall kill you?' he said Yes. The apostle gave orders that the ruin was to be excavated and some of the treasure was found. When he asked him about the rest he refused to produce it, so the apostle gave orders to al-Zubayr ibn al-Awwam, 'Torture him until you extract what he has,' so he kindled a fire with flint and steel on his chest until he was nearly dead. Then the apostle delivered him to Muhammad ibn Maslama and he struck off his head." (Ibn Ishaq, Sirat Rasul Allah)
After killing Kinana, Muhammad married his young widow Safiyya that same day, taking her while the blood of her husband, father, brother, and other relatives was still fresh.
Female Captives and Sexual Slavery
The fate of female captives in Islamic law is particularly disturbing. The Quran explicitly permits sexual relations with "those whom your right hand possesses" (female slaves and captives), even if they are married, with their marriages automatically annulled upon capture.
"And [also prohibited to you are all] married women except those your right hands possess. [This is] the decree of Allah upon you." (Quran 4:24)
The hadith literature makes clear that female captives could be used for sex immediately, with the only question being whether coitus interruptus was permissible (to preserve their value if the captor wished to sell them later).
"We went out with Allah's Messenger on the expedition to the Bi'l-Mustaliq and took captive some excellent Arab women; and we desired them, for we were suffering from the absence of our wives, (but at the same time) we also desired ransom for them. So we decided to have sexual intercourse with them but by observing azl (coitus interruptus)." (Sahih Muslim 1438a)
Another hadith is even more explicit:
"The Apostle of Allah sent a military expedition to Awtas on the occasion of the battle of Hunain. They met their enemy and fought with them. They defeated them and took them captives. Some of the Companions of the Apostle of Allah were reluctant to have intercourse with the female captives in the presence of their husbands who were unbelievers. So Allah, the Exalted, sent down the Quranic verse: 'And all married women (are forbidden) unto you save those (captives) whom your right hands possess.'" (Sunan Abu Dawud 2150)
This hadith reveals that some companions had qualms about raping women in front of their husbands, so Allah sent down a verse specifically permitting it. The women's consent was never a consideration.
Classical Islamic Jurisprudence
Islamic jurists across all schools of law developed extensive rules governing prisoners of war, always within the framework established by the Quran and Muhammad's example. The Hanafi jurist al-Sarakhsi (d. 1090) summarizes the options:
"The imam [Muslim leader] has the choice with regard to prisoners of war. If he wishes, he can have them executed; if he wishes, he can ransom them; if he wishes, he can enslave them... If he executes them, there is no liability upon him." (al-Sarakhsi, al-Mabsut, Vol. 10)
The Maliki scholar Ibn Rushd (Averroes, d. 1198) explains that while scholars debated which option is preferable, all agreed that the commander has complete discretion:
"The jurists agreed that the imam has the choice between killing, enslaving, ransoming or releasing prisoners of war... They disagreed about which of these is better." (Ibn Rushd, Bidayat al-Mujtahid, Vol. 1)
Regarding female captives, all schools agreed that they automatically become the property of their captors and can be used sexually. The Shafi'i scholar al-Nawawi (d. 1277) states:
"If a man acquires by purchase or other means a slave woman, he is entitled to have sexual intercourse with her immediately... If she is captured in war, it is permissible to have intercourse with her after she becomes clean from menstruation or childbirth." (al-Nawawi, al-Minhaj, Book of Marriage)
Modern Application
While many Muslims today are uncomfortable with these classical teachings, the texts remain authoritative, and some groups openly apply them. ISIS notoriously revived the practice of sex slavery, capturing thousands of Yazidi and Christian women. They published detailed guidelines in their magazine Dabiq, citing the same Quranic verses and hadiths discussed above.
Mainstream Muslim scholars who condemned ISIS often struggled to explain why the texts didn't mean what ISIS said they meant. The classical sources are clear, and ISIS was simply following traditional Islamic jurisprudence on prisoners of war. The difference was not in interpretation but in application—most Muslims believe we are not currently in a state of legitimate jihad, while ISIS believed they had re-established the caliphate and could therefore implement the full range of Islamic law.
Biblical Contrast: The Dignity of All People
The biblical worldview stands in stark contrast to Islamic teachings on prisoners of war. While the Old Testament does record warfare and instances of harsh treatment, it also contains provisions aimed at protecting captives, particularly women.
"When you go out to war against your enemies, and the LORD your God gives them into your hand and you take them captive, and you see among the captives a beautiful woman, and you desire to take her to be your wife, and you bring her home to your house, she shall shave her head and pare her nails. And she shall take off the clothes in which she was captured and shall remain in your house and lament her father and her mother a full month. After that you may go in to her and be her husband, and she shall be your wife. But if you no longer delight in her, you shall let her go where she wants. But you shall not sell her for money, nor shall you treat her as a slave, since you have humiliated her." (Deuteronomy 21:10-14)
While this passage permits marriage to a captive woman, it requires a waiting period, prohibits treating her as mere property, and forbids selling her. The contrast with Islamic law—which permits immediate rape and sale of captive women—is striking.
More fundamentally, the New Testament presents a radically different ethic. Jesus commands His followers to love their enemies (Matthew 5:44), and Paul instructs believers to "overcome evil with good" (Romans 12:21). Peter tells Christians that even when suffering unjustly, they should follow Christ's example:
"When he was reviled, he did not revile in return; when he suffered, he did not threaten, but continued entrusting himself to him who judges justly." (1 Peter 2:23)
The early Christians were known for their radically different treatment of captives and enemies. Rather than enslaving those they defeated (Christians rarely fought aggressive wars), they were more often the ones captured and enslaved. When they did interact with slaves, they treated them as brothers and sisters in Christ.
"There is neither Jew nor Greek, there is neither slave nor free, there is no male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus." (Galatians 3:28)
Questions to Consider
- How can Islam claim to be a religion of peace when its prophet ordered the mass execution of prisoners and established a precedent for killing captives?
- If the Quran is timeless moral guidance, why does it permit the enslavement and sexual exploitation of prisoners of war rather than prohibiting such practices?
- What does it say about Muhammad's character that he tortured a man to death to extract wealth, then married his widow the same day?
- How can Muslims criticize ISIS for taking sex slaves when ISIS was simply following Muhammad's example and applying traditional Islamic jurisprudence?
- If Allah is merciful, why does the Quran criticize Muhammad for showing mercy to prisoners at Badr, suggesting he should have killed them all?
- Can a religion that denies basic rights to prisoners of war and permits their rape and enslavement ever be compatible with modern human rights principles?
- What does it reveal about a religious system that its sacred texts had to explicitly permit raping captive women in front of their husbands because some followers had qualms about it?