Islam's Fundamental Split
Most non-Muslims are vaguely aware that Islam is divided into Sunni and Shia branches, but few understand the depth and origin of this division. This isn't a minor denominational difference like Protestant vs. Catholic—it's a fundamental schism that began immediately after Muhammad's death and has resulted in centuries of warfare, mutual accusations of apostasy, and incompatible theologies. The division reveals that Islam was never unified, even from its beginning.
The Origin: Succession Crisis
The split began within hours of Muhammad's death in 632 CE. Muhammad died without clearly designating a successor (caliph) to lead the Muslim community. This created an immediate crisis:
The Sunni Position: Abu Bakr, Muhammad's close companion and father-in-law, was chosen as the first caliph by the community's elders. Sunnis believe the first four caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali) were all legitimate "Rightly Guided Caliphs." Leadership should be determined by community consensus among qualified leaders.
The Shia Position: Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law (married to Fatimah, Muhammad's daughter), was Muhammad's rightful successor designated by God. Shias believe Muhammad explicitly appointed Ali at Ghadir Khumm, and Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman usurped leadership. Only Ali and his descendants through Fatimah have legitimate authority.
This disagreement led to immediate tension. According to some accounts, Ali initially refused to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr, though he eventually did so. But the seed of division was planted.
The Battle of Karbala: The Defining Tragedy
The split became violent and permanent in 680 CE at the Battle of Karbala. Hussein, Ali's son and Muhammad's grandson, led a small band against the army of the Umayyad caliph Yazid. Hussein and his followers were massacred, and Hussein's head was reportedly sent to Yazid as a trophy.
For Shias, Karbala is the defining tragedy of Islam. Hussein's martyrdom is commemorated annually during Ashura with public displays of mourning, self-flagellation, and passion plays reenacting his death. The event crystallized Shia identity around themes of martyrdom, suffering, righteous resistance against illegitimate authority, and devotion to the Imams (descendants of Ali and Fatimah).
For Sunnis, Karbala is an unfortunate tragedy, but they consider Yazid a legitimate (if flawed) Muslim ruler, and they don't commemorate Ashura in the same way.
Theological Differences
Over centuries, the Sunni-Shia split developed into fundamental theological differences:
Authority:
• Sunnis: Authority comes from Quran, authentic hadith, consensus of scholars (ijma), and analogical reasoning (qiyas)
• Shias: Authority comes from Quran, hadith (but they reject many Sunni hadith and accept different ones), and the teachings of their Imams, who they believe are divinely guided and infallible
Imams:
• Sunnis: "Imam" just means prayer leader; any qualified Muslim can be an imam
• Shias: The Imams (specifically twelve, according to "Twelver" Shias who constitute the majority) are divinely appointed spiritual leaders descended from Ali and Fatimah. They are infallible (ma'sum) and have special knowledge. The Twelfth Imam (Muhammad al-Mahdi) went into "occultation" (hiding) in 874 CE and will return as the Mahdi
Practices:
• Sunnis: Pray with arms folded; make sajdah (prostration) directly on prayer rug
• Shias: Pray with arms at sides; place a clay tablet (turbah) on the ground and prostrate on it
• Shias practice temporary marriage (mut'ah); Sunnis consider this forbidden
• Shias allow combining prayers; most Sunnis don't
• Shias commemorate Ashura with mourning; Sunnis observe it differently
Companions:
• Sunnis: Revere the Sahaba (companions of Muhammad), especially Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman
• Shias: Many Shias curse the first three caliphs as usurpers, considering them apostates who stole leadership from Ali. Some even curse Aisha (Muhammad's wife) for her role in opposing Ali
Mutual Accusations of Apostasy
Throughout history, Sunnis and Shias have often declared each other non-Muslim:
• Wahhabi/Salafi Sunnis frequently declare Shias are mushrikeen (polytheists) for their veneration of Imams
• Some Shias declare Sunnis are infidels for accepting the first three caliphs
• In various periods, Sunni rulers have massacred Shia populations and vice versa
• Modern conflicts (Iraq, Yemen, Syria, Lebanon) have Sunni-Shia dimensions
• Saudi Arabia (Sunni/Wahhabi) and Iran (Shia) are locked in a regional power struggle with religious overtones
This isn't ancient history. Sunni ISIS massacred Shias in Iraq. Saudi Arabia has executed Shia clerics. The Syrian civil war has Sunni-Shia dimensions. The mutual hostility remains intense.
What This Reveals About Islam
The Sunni-Shia split reveals several uncomfortable truths:
1. Islam was never unified. The split began immediately after Muhammad's death. There was no "golden age" of Islamic unity.
2. Muhammad didn't clearly designate a successor. If he had, there would be no dispute. The confusion suggests either he didn't think he was about to die, or he failed to plan for succession.
3. Both sides claim divine guidance for contradictory positions. Sunnis and Shias both claim their position is Allah's will, but they contradict each other. Both cannot be right.
4. The division has caused centuries of bloodshed. Muslims have killed more Muslims over this split than any external enemy has.
5. There's no mechanism to resolve the dispute. Unlike Christianity, which can appeal to Scripture, Islam's division involves competing claims about what happened (succession) and who has authority (Imams). There's no neutral arbiter.
Biblical Contrast: Unity in Christ
While Christianity has denominations, they agree on core truths: the Trinity, Christ's deity, his death and resurrection for sins, salvation by grace through faith. Denominational differences involve secondary matters.
"There is one body and one Spirit, just as you were called to one hope when you were called; one Lord, one faith, one baptism; one God and Father of all, who is over all and through all and in all." — Ephesians 4:4-6
Jesus prayed for unity:
"My prayer is not for them alone. I pray also for those who will believe in me through their message, that all of them may be one, Father, just as you are in me and I am in you." — John 17:20-21
While Christians haven't perfectly maintained unity, the core message remains consistent across denominations: Jesus Christ, God incarnate, died for our sins and rose again, offering salvation by grace through faith.
Questions to Consider
- If Islam is the final revelation, why couldn't it maintain unity even for one generation after Muhammad?
- Why didn't Muhammad clearly designate a successor if the issue was so important?
- How can both Sunnis and Shias claim divine guidance for contradictory positions?
- What does centuries of Sunni-Shia warfare say about Islam as a religion of peace?
- If Allah is guiding Islam, why has the split only deepened over time?
- How can Muslims claim Islam is superior when they can't even agree on who should have led after Muhammad?
- Doesn't the ongoing Sunni-Shia conflict suggest human, not divine, origins?
Conclusion
The Sunni-Shia split is not a minor disagreement—it's a fundamental division that began immediately after Muhammad's death and has resulted in centuries of theological dispute, mutual accusations of apostasy, and massive bloodshed. The split reveals that Islam was never unified, that Muhammad failed to clearly designate succession, and that both sides claim divine authority for contradictory positions.
If Islam is the final, perfected revelation from an all-knowing God, the immediate and permanent division into warring sects is inexplicable. A truly divine religion should have mechanisms to maintain unity and resolve disputes. Instead, Islam fractured at its founding and has remained divided ever since, with Muslims killing Muslims over questions that should have been clearly answered by a divinely guided prophet.
Related articles: The Ridda Wars, The Mahdi