The Succession Crisis: Seeds of Sunni-Shia Split
Muhammad's death in 632 CE created an immediate crisis: Who would lead the Muslim community? This succession dispute, which erupted before Muhammad's body was even buried, would split Islam into competing sects that remain bitterly divided nearly 1,400 years later. The violence, betrayal, and power struggles that characterized early Islamic leadership reveal much about the nature of this religion and stand in stark contrast to the unity and peaceful succession of early Christianity.
The Day Muhammad Died: Immediate Conflict
Even as Muhammad lay dead in Aisha's chamber, the power struggle began. The Ansar (Muslims from Medina) gathered at the Saqifah (covered porch) to elect their own leader, while the Muhajirun (Muslims who had migrated from Mecca with Muhammad) rushed to assert their claim to leadership.
Abu Bakr, Umar, and Abu Ubaidah hurried to the meeting, leaving Muhammad's body unattended. According to Islamic sources, heated arguments and even physical violence broke out. Umar threatened to burn down the house of anyone who refused to pledge allegiance to Abu Bakr. The dispute was so fierce that some historians report blows were exchanged.
Meanwhile, Ali ibn Abi Talib, Muhammad's cousin and son-in-law (married to Muhammad's daughter Fatima), was busy preparing Muhammad's body for burial. By the time he emerged, Abu Bakr had already been declared the first caliph (successor) through a rushed and contested process. Ali believed that Muhammad had designated him as successor, but he lacked the political support to challenge Abu Bakr immediately.
This is the foundational split: Sunnis accept Abu Bakr's caliphate as legitimate, while Shias believe Ali was the rightful successor and that the first three caliphs (Abu Bakr, Umar, and Uthman) were usurpers.
The Quran's Failure to Provide Guidance
One of the most revealing aspects of this succession crisis is that the Quran—supposedly the complete and final revelation from Allah—provided no clear guidance on this critical issue. After 23 years of revelations covering everything from inheritance laws to bathroom etiquette, the Quran is silent on how leadership should be transferred after Muhammad's death.
This silence is especially damning given that the Quran claims:
"And We have sent down to you the Book as clarification for all things and as guidance and mercy and good tidings for the Muslims." (Quran 16:89)
If the Quran clarifies "all things," why did it omit arguably the most important political question facing the Muslim community? The result was immediate conflict, competing claims, and violence—consequences that continue to this day.
Abu Bakr's Caliphate (632-634 CE)
Abu Bakr's two-year rule was marked by the Ridda Wars (Wars of Apostasy). When Muhammad died, many Arab tribes who had accepted Islam only for political convenience renounced their allegiance. Some refused to pay zakat (Islamic tax) to Abu Bakr, while others left Islam entirely or followed other claimants to prophethood.
Abu Bakr's response was brutal. He declared:
"By Allah! I will fight whoever differentiates between prayer and zakat, as zakat is the right to be taken from the property (according to Allah's orders). By Allah! If they refuse to pay me even a she-kid which they used to pay at the time of Allah's Messenger, I would fight with them for withholding it." (Sahih al-Bukhari 2:23:483)
Tens of thousands of Arabs were killed in these wars. Entire tribes were massacred or enslaved for attempting to leave Islam or refusing to pay tax to Abu Bakr. This established a precedent: apostasy from Islam is punishable by death.
The hadith records Muhammad's command on this matter:
"Whoever changed his Islamic religion, then kill him." (Sahih al-Bukhari 9:84:57)
During Abu Bakr's reign, Ali remained largely sidelined. Fatima, Muhammad's daughter, was so angry about being denied what she considered her inheritance (the lands of Fadak) that she refused to speak to Abu Bakr and Umar until her death six months after Muhammad. Islamic sources report that she asked to be buried at night so that Abu Bakr and Umar would not attend her funeral.
Umar's Caliphate (634-644 CE) and Expansion Through Violence
Umar, appointed by Abu Bakr on his deathbed, oversaw massive Islamic expansion through military conquest. During his ten-year rule, Muslim armies conquered Syria, Egypt, Iraq, and Persia. These conquests were not peaceful conversions but military invasions:
"Fight those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth from those who were given the Scripture - [fight] until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled." (Quran 9:29)
The jizyah was a tax imposed on non-Muslims living under Islamic rule. Refusal to pay meant death or enslavement. The historian Al-Baladhuri records that when the Muslims conquered Iraq, they gave Christians and Jews three choices: convert to Islam, pay jizyah while being humiliated, or face the sword.
Umar was assassinated in 644 CE by a Persian slave named Abu Lu'lu'ah, who was angry about the heavy tax Umar had imposed on him. Shia Muslims celebrate the anniversary of Umar's death, viewing him as an oppressor who stole Ali's rightful position.
Uthman's Caliphate (644-656 CE) and the First Fitna
Before dying, Umar appointed a committee of six men to choose the next caliph. They selected Uthman ibn Affan, a wealthy merchant from the Umayyad clan. Uthman's reign was marked by nepotism and corruption. He appointed his relatives to key positions and favored his clan, the Umayyads, in the distribution of wealth from conquests.
Opposition to Uthman grew, particularly from early Muslims who felt he had betrayed Islamic principles. Complaints included:
- Nepotism and favoritism toward the Umayyad family
- Changing the call to prayer
- Burning variant Quran manuscripts (attempting to standardize the text)
- Using excessive force against critics
- Accumulating vast personal wealth while others remained poor
In 656 CE, rebels from Egypt and Iraq surrounded Uthman's house in Medina, demanding his resignation. When he refused, they broke in and killed him while he was reading the Quran. His blood reportedly stained the page he was reading—Quran 2:137, which ironically speaks of Allah being sufficient against enemies.
The murder of Uthman, one of Muhammad's closest companions and the third caliph, reveals the moral bankruptcy at Islam's core. Within 24 years of Muhammad's death, one of his most prominent companions was assassinated by fellow Muslims while reading the Quran. None of the Prophet's companions intervened to save him.
Ali's Caliphate (656-661 CE) and Civil War
After Uthman's murder, Ali finally became caliph. However, his reign was plagued by civil war from the start. Aisha, Muhammad's widow, along with two prominent companions (Talha and Zubayr), raised an army against Ali, demanding that he punish Uthman's murderers.
The Battle of the Camel (656 CE) saw Muhammad's widow leading an army against Muhammad's cousin. Thousands of Muslims killed each other. Ali's forces won, and both Talha and Zubayr were killed. Aisha was captured and sent back to Medina.
This battle is astonishing for several reasons:
- Muhammad's "Mother of the Believers" led armed rebellion against his cousin
- Companions of the Prophet killed each other in battle
- The Quran's command that "the believers are but brothers" (49:10) was ignored
- Both sides claimed to be fighting for Islam
The conflict continued when Muawiyah, Uthman's cousin and governor of Syria, refused to recognize Ali's caliphate. This led to the Battle of Siffin (657 CE), where tens of thousands more Muslims died fighting each other. When Ali appeared to be winning, Muawiyah's forces raised copies of the Quran on their spears, calling for arbitration according to "the book of Allah."
Ali agreed to arbitration, but this decision alienated some of his supporters, who became the Kharijites ("those who left"). They believed that accepting arbitration showed lack of trust in Allah and constituted unbelief. The Kharijites declared both Ali and Muawiyah apostates and began killing Muslims they deemed insufficiently righteous.
In 661 CE, Ali was assassinated by a Kharijite while praying in the mosque at Kufa. He died from a poisoned sword wound to the head.
The Aftermath: Permanent Division
After Ali's death, his son Hasan briefly claimed the caliphate but abdicated to Muawiyah in exchange for payment. Muawiyah established the Umayyad dynasty, making the caliphate hereditary rather than elective.
When Muawiyah died in 680 CE, his son Yazid became caliph. Ali's younger son Hussein refused to acknowledge Yazid's legitimacy and attempted to raise support in Iraq. At the Battle of Karbala (680 CE), Hussein and his small band of followers were massacred by Yazid's forces. Hussein was beheaded, and his head was brought to Yazid in Damascus.
The martyrdom of Hussein at Karbala became the defining event of Shia Islam. To this day, Shia Muslims commemorate Ashura with mourning rituals, self-flagellation, and passion plays reenacting Hussein's suffering and death.
The Sunni-Shia split became permanent, with each side developing different collections of hadith, different legal schools, different practices, and mutual accusations of heresy. Throughout Islamic history, Sunnis and Shias have persecuted and killed each other in numbers that dwarf conflicts with non-Muslims.
Contrast with Early Christianity
The chaos, violence, and division following Muhammad's death stand in stark contrast to the early Christian church:
Clear Succession: Jesus gave Peter the keys of the kingdom and commissioned His apostles to lead the church (Matthew 16:18-19, John 21:15-17). After His ascension, the apostles chose Matthias to replace Judas through prayer and casting lots (Acts 1:23-26). There was no power struggle, no violence, no competing factions.
Unity Despite Persecution: The early church faced intense external persecution but maintained internal unity. The apostles disagreed on matters of doctrine and practice (like the dispute between Paul and Peter in Galatians 2), but they resolved these disputes through councils and dialogue, not swords and armies.
Peaceful Leadership Transition: When James was martyred (Acts 12:2), the church mourned but didn't split into factions. When Paul was imprisoned and executed, Christians didn't raise armies or declare civil war. Leadership transitions were orderly, based on spiritual qualifications, not military power.
No Apostates Killed: When Demas abandoned Paul (2 Timothy 4:10) or others fell away, there were no wars of apostasy. Jesus warned that some would fall away (Matthew 24:10), but never commanded that they be hunted down and killed.
Martyrdom, Not Murder: Early Christian leaders like Stephen, James, Peter, and Paul were martyred for their faith. They did not kill each other in power struggles. Peter didn't raise an army against Paul. John didn't assassinate James. The pattern was sacrificial death, not political assassination.
Love for Enemies: Even when persecuted by outsiders and betrayed by insiders, Christians followed Jesus's command to love their enemies and pray for their persecutors (Matthew 5:44). Stephen prayed for his killers as they stoned him (Acts 7:60). Paul wrote letters from prison, not declarations of war.
What the Succession Crisis Reveals
The chaos following Muhammad's death reveals several damning truths about Islam:
1. The Quran is Incomplete: Despite claiming to be comprehensive guidance, it provided no direction on this critical issue. Allah apparently could reveal verses about Muhammad's wives but couldn't clarify who should lead after him.
2. Muhammad Failed to Prepare His Community: A true prophet would have ensured orderly succession. Moses appointed Joshua. Jesus commissioned His apostles. Muhammad left his followers confused and fighting.
3. Islam Spreads Through Violence: The immediate resort to warfare—against apostates, against each other, against conquered peoples—shows that Islam was built on the sword, not spiritual truth.
4. No Moral Authority: Muhammad's closest companions—those who supposedly learned directly from him—immediately began fighting for power. They killed each other, betrayed each other, and led armies against each other. What does this say about the character formation Islam produces?
5. The Spirit of Islam is Division: Jesus prayed that His followers "may all be one" (John 17:21). The early church, despite diverse backgrounds, formed a unified community. Islam fractured immediately and has remained violently divided ever since.
Questions to Consider
- If the Quran is complete guidance for all things, why does it not address the critical question of leadership succession?
- Why did Muhammad's closest companions immediately begin fighting for power after his death instead of maintaining unity?
- How can Islam be the true religion if its adherents were killing each other within 24 years of Muhammad's death?
- Why did Ali, supposedly Muhammad's designated successor, fail to secure the leadership position if his claim was so clear?
- What does it say about Islamic morality that Uthman was murdered while reading the Quran and none of Muhammad's companions came to his defense?
- How can Muslims claim Islam is a religion of peace when their entire early history is marked by civil wars, assassinations, and massacres?
- Why did Muhammad's widow Aisha lead an army against his cousin Ali if Islam truly provides guidance for resolving disputes?
- If the first generation of Muslims—those who supposedly learned directly from Muhammad—couldn't maintain unity, what hope is there for later generations?
- Why do Sunnis and Shias continue to kill each other 1,400 years later if Islam provides clear guidance?
- How does the chaos and violence following Muhammad's death compare with the unity and peaceful succession of the early Christian church?
The succession crisis reveals Islam not as divinely guided truth but as a human power structure built on conquest and maintained by violence. When the strong man died, his house was divided, and it has remained divided ever since. Jesus warned, "Every kingdom divided against itself is laid waste, and no city or house divided against itself will stand" (Matthew 24:25). Islam has been divided from its inception, held together not by love and truth but by the sword and fear.