Terrorism's Theological Roots
When terrorist attacks occur in the name of Islam, many rush to declare that "this has nothing to do with Islam" or that terrorists have "hijacked a peaceful religion." While the vast majority of Muslims never commit violence, an honest examination of Islamic texts and history reveals theological foundations that violent extremists use to justify their actions. Understanding these roots is essential for both Muslims seeking reform and non-Muslims trying to comprehend the connection between doctrine and violence.
Quranic Foundations for Violence
The Quran contains numerous verses that explicitly command violence against unbelievers, apostates, and perceived enemies of Islam. These are not metaphorical or spiritual battles—they are literal commands for physical warfare and killing.
"And kill them wherever you overtake them and expel them from wherever they have expelled you, and fitnah is worse than killing. And do not fight them at al-Masjid al-Haram until they fight you there. But if they fight you, then kill them. Such is the recompense of the disbelievers." (Quran 2:191)
"Fighting has been enjoined upon you while it is hateful to you. But perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you; and perhaps you love a thing and it is bad for you. And Allah Knows, while you know not." (Quran 2:216)
"Indeed, the penalty for those who wage war against Allah and His Messenger and strive upon earth [to cause] corruption is none but that they be killed or crucified or that their hands and feet be cut off from opposite sides or that they be exiled from the land." (Quran 5:33)
"And when the sacred months have passed, then kill the polytheists wherever you find them and capture them and besiege them and sit in wait for them at every place of ambush. But if they should repent, establish prayer, and give zakah, let them [go] on their way." (Quran 9:5)
This last verse, known as the "Sword Verse," is considered by many Islamic scholars to abrogate (cancel) earlier peaceful verses. The doctrine of abrogation means later, more violent verses supersede earlier, more peaceful ones.
"Fight those who do not believe in Allah or in the Last Day and who do not consider unlawful what Allah and His Messenger have made unlawful and who do not adopt the religion of truth from those who were given the Scripture - [fight] until they give the jizyah willingly while they are humbled." (Quran 9:29)
Muhammad's Example: The Sunnah of Violence
Muhammad is considered the "perfect example" for Muslims to follow (Quran 33:21). His life included numerous military campaigns, assassinations, and acts of violence that form precedents for jihadist behavior.
Muhammad personally participated in or ordered approximately 65 military campaigns. He ordered the assassination of critics and poets who mocked him, including Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf and Abu 'Afak. After the Battle of Badr, he ordered the execution of prisoners. Following the siege of Banu Qurayza, he oversaw the beheading of 600-900 Jewish men and the enslavement of their women and children.
Narrated Anas bin Malik: "On the day of the Conquest, the Prophet entered Mecca, wearing a helmet on his head. When he took it off, a man came and said, 'Ibn Khatal is clinging to the curtain of the Ka'ba.' The Prophet said, 'Kill him.'" (Sahih Bukhari 3:29:72)
Narrated Abu Huraira: "The Prophet said, 'I have been ordered to fight the people till they say: 'None has the right to be worshipped but Allah.'" (Sahih Bukhari 1:2:24)
The Doctrine of Jihad
Jihad is not merely an "internal spiritual struggle" as Western apologists often claim. While that interpretation exists, classical Islamic jurisprudence overwhelmingly defines jihad as physical warfare to expand Islamic rule.
The four major Sunni schools of Islamic law (Hanafi, Maliki, Shafi'i, and Hanbali) all teach that military jihad is a collective obligation (fard kifaya) of the Muslim community, and can become an individual obligation (fard ayn) under certain circumstances.
"Not equal are those believers remaining [at home] - other than the disabled - and the mujahideen, [who strive and fight] in the cause of Allah with their wealth and their lives. Allah has preferred the mujahideen through their wealth and their lives over those who remain [behind], by degrees." (Quran 4:95)
The rewards promised for martyrdom in jihad create powerful incentives for violence:
Narrated Anas bin Malik: "The Prophet said, 'Nobody who dies and finds good from Allah (in the Hereafter) would wish to come back to this world even if he were given the whole world and whatever is in it, except the martyr who, on seeing the superiority of martyrdom, would like to come back to the world and get killed again (in Allah's Cause).'" (Sahih Bukhari 4:52:53)
Narrated Abu Huraira: "The Prophet said, 'By Him in Whose Hands my soul is! Were it not for some men amongst the believers who dislike to be left behind me and whom I cannot provide with means of conveyance, I would certainly never remain behind any Sariya' (army-unit) setting out in Allah's Cause. By Him in Whose Hands my soul is! I would love to be martyred in Allah's Cause and then get resurrected and then get martyred, and then get resurrected again and then get martyred and then get resurrected again and then get martyred.'" (Sahih Bukhari 4:52:54)
Theological Concepts That Enable Violence
Several Islamic theological concepts provide frameworks that terrorists exploit:
- Takfir: Declaring other Muslims to be apostates, which justifies killing them
- Dar al-Islam vs Dar al-Harb: The world divided into "House of Islam" and "House of War"
- Taqiyya: Permissible deception of non-Muslims for Islam's benefit
- Abrogation (Naskh): Later violent verses supersede earlier peaceful ones
- Offensive Jihad: War to expand Islamic territory, not merely defensive
Contemporary Islamic Scholars on Jihad
Many contemporary Islamic scholars continue to teach traditional violent jihad doctrine. This is not merely an extremist fringe position:
Sheikh Yusuf al-Qaradawi, one of the most influential Sunni scholars globally, has defended suicide bombings against Israeli civilians. The Muslim Brotherhood, from which many terrorist groups emerged, explicitly maintains jihad as a core principle. Saudi Arabia's educational curriculum, funded by oil wealth and exported worldwide, teaches traditional jihad doctrine including offensive warfare.
Biblical Contrast: Jesus' Teaching on Violence
The contrast with Christianity's founder could not be starker. While Islam's prophet was a military commander who spread his religion by the sword, Christianity's founder explicitly rejected violence:
"But I tell you, do not resist an evil person. If anyone slaps you on the right cheek, turn to them the other cheek also." (Matthew 5:39)
"You have heard that it was said, 'Love your neighbor and hate your enemy.' But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you." (Matthew 5:43-44)
"Put your sword back in its place," Jesus said to him, "for all who draw the sword will die by the sword." (Matthew 26:52)
When Peter defended Jesus with violence, Jesus rebuked him and healed the wounded enemy (Luke 22:49-51). Jesus never led armies, never ordered assassinations, never commanded his followers to wage war. Instead, he surrendered to arrest and execution rather than use force.
When Christians have committed violence in history, they did so in contradiction to their founder's example. When Muslims commit violence for Islam, they can cite their founder's example and explicit Quranic commands. This is a crucial theological distinction.
The Problem of Abrogation
Muslims who cite peaceful Quranic verses often ignore the doctrine of abrogation. The Quran itself teaches abrogation:
"We do not abrogate a verse or cause it to be forgotten except that We bring forth [one] better than it or similar to it. Do you not know that Allah is over all things competent?" (Quran 2:106)
Islamic scholars widely agree that the peaceful Meccan verses (when Muhammad was weak) were abrogated by the violent Medinan verses (when Muhammad gained power). This means that verses like "There is no compulsion in religion" (2:256) are cancelled by later verses commanding fighting and subjugation.
The Challenge for Reform
Reforming Islam faces a fundamental theological problem: the Quran is believed to be Allah's eternal, unchangeable word, and Muhammad is the perfect example for all time. How can one reform a religion when its core texts explicitly command violence and its founder practiced it?
Western politicians and media do Muslims no favors by denying the theological roots of Islamic terrorism. Such denial prevents honest discussion and meaningful reform. Muslims who genuinely seek peace must confront these difficult texts honestly, not pretend they don't exist or aren't relevant.
Questions to Consider
- If the violent verses in the Quran are taken "out of context," what context makes commands to kill unbelievers acceptable?
- How can Muhammad be the "perfect example" for all time if his example includes military conquest, assassinations, and execution of prisoners?
- Why do so many terrorist groups independently arrive at similar interpretations of Islamic texts if those interpretations are completely wrong?
- What theological basis exists for Muslims to reject violent jihad when it is commanded in the Quran and exemplified by Muhammad?
- If Islam is a religion of peace, why does it need extensive apologetics to explain away its violent texts and history?
- How can one trust a religion whose founder permitted deception (taqiyya) of non-Muslims?
- What prevents the violent verses from being acted upon in every generation, rather than only by "extremists"?