The Modern Reinterpretation
After terrorist attacks, Muslim spokespersons often claim that jihad (جهاد) means "internal spiritual struggle" rather than warfare. This interpretation has become so widespread that many Westerners accept it without question. But is it true? What do Islamic sources actually say?
The short answer: Classical Islamic scholarship unanimously defines jihad primarily as physical warfare against non-Muslims to expand or defend Islamic territory. The "inner struggle" interpretation is a modern apologetic innovation.
The Arabic Meaning
The Arabic word jihad comes from the root j-h-d (ج-ه-د), meaning "to struggle" or "to exert effort." The related word mujahid (مجاهد) means "warrior" or "fighter." In Islamic texts, jihad almost always refers to military struggle.
Jihad in the Hadith
The Primary Meaning
In Sahih Bukhari, one of Islam's two most authentic hadith collections, a man asked Muhammad about the best deeds:
"A man asked the Prophet, 'What is the best deed?' He replied, 'To believe in Allah and His Apostle.' The man asked, 'What is next?' The Prophet said, 'To participate in jihad in Allah's cause.'" — Sahih Bukhari 2:26:594
Another hadith clarifies what jihad means:
"Allah's Apostle was asked, 'What is the best deed?' He replied, 'To believe in Allah and His Apostle.' The questioner then asked, 'What is the next?' He replied, 'To participate in jihad (religious fighting) in Allah's Cause.'" — Sahih Bukhari 1:2:25
Note the parenthetical clarification: jihad is explicitly defined as "religious fighting."
The Supremacy of Jihad
"The head of the matter is Islam, its pillar is prayer, and its peak is jihad." — Sunan al-Tirmidhi 2616
Jihad is described as the peak or pinnacle of Islam—not prayer, charity, or personal spiritual struggle, but warfare.
Muhammad's Statement
"I have been commanded to fight against people till they testify that there is no god but Allah, that Muhammad is the messenger of Allah..." — Sahih Muslim 1:33
This hadith, found in multiple authentic collections, shows that warfare was central to Muhammad's mission.
Jihad in Islamic Law
Reliance of the Traveller, a classic manual of Islamic law certified by Al-Azhar University (Sunni Islam's highest authority), defines jihad:
"Jihad means to war against non-Muslims, and is etymologically derived from the word mujahada, signifying warfare to establish the religion." — Reliance of the Traveller, o9.0
The manual continues: "The scriptural basis for jihad... is such Koranic verses as... 'Fighting is prescribed for you' (2:216)."
This isn't extremism—it's mainstream Sunni Islamic law.
Types of Jihad
Classical scholars did recognize different forms of jihad:
- Jihad of the sword (jihad bil-saif) - Physical warfare
- Jihad of the tongue (jihad bil-lisan) - Preaching and verbal propagation
- Jihad of the hand (jihad bil-yad) - Taking action to enforce Islamic norms
- Jihad of the heart (jihad bil-nafs) - Personal struggle against sin
However, jihad of the sword was considered the highest form. The personal struggle interpretation was never primary.
The "Greater vs Lesser" Jihad Hadith
Some Muslims cite a hadith where Muhammad allegedly said the "greater jihad" is internal struggle while the "lesser jihad" is warfare. However:
- This hadith is classified as weak (da'if) or even fabricated (mawdu') by hadith scholars
- It appears in late, unreliable collections, not in Sahih Bukhari or Sahih Muslim
- Classical scholars never elevated it above authentic hadiths prioritizing military jihad
- Ibn Taymiyyah and other authorities questioned its authenticity
Even if authentic, it wouldn't erase the hundreds of authentic hadiths making warfare central to jihad.
Quranic Commands for Jihad
"Fighting has been enjoined upon you while it is hateful to you. But perhaps you hate a thing and it is good for you; and perhaps you love a thing and it is bad for you. And Allah knows, while you know not." — Quran 2:216
"O you who have believed, fight those adjacent to you of the disbelievers and let them find in you harshness. And know that Allah is with the righteous." — Quran 9:123
"Fight them until there is no fitnah and [until] the religion, all of it, is for Allah." — Quran 8:39
These verses command physical fighting, not metaphorical struggle. See our article on Fighting Until Religion is for Allah.
Historical Practice
Islamic history confirms that jihad meant warfare:
- Muhammad himself led or ordered approximately 86 military expeditions (see our article on Muhammad's Military Campaigns)
- The Rashidun Caliphs (632-661 CE) expanded Islamic territory through military conquest
- The Umayyad Caliphate (661-750 CE) conquered from Spain to India through jihad
- The Ottoman Empire (1299-1922 CE) used jihad to expand and maintain territory
If jihad meant inner struggle, why did Islamic empires spend 1,400 years conquering territory?
Conditions for Jihad
Islamic law distinguishes between two types of military jihad:
1. Offensive Jihad (Jihad al-Talab)
Warfare to expand Islamic territory. Classical scholars agreed this is a collective obligation (fard kifaya) on the Muslim community. For details, see Offensive vs Defensive Jihad.
2. Defensive Jihad (Jihad al-Difa')
Warfare to defend Muslim lands under attack. This becomes an individual obligation (fard ayn) for Muslims in the affected region.
Both types involve physical warfare, not spiritual struggle.
Why the Reinterpretation?
After 9/11 and other attacks, Western Muslims needed to distance Islam from violence. Redefining jihad as "inner struggle" served this purpose. However:
- It contradicts 1,400 years of Islamic scholarship
- It's not found in authentic hadiths
- It's absent from classical legal manuals
- It doesn't explain Islamic history
Comparison with Christianity
Christianity does speak of spiritual warfare, but never commands Christians to kill unbelievers:
"For we do not wrestle against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the cosmic powers over this present darkness..." — Ephesians 6:12
"Put your sword back into its place. For all who take the sword will perish by the sword." — Matthew 26:52
Jesus explicitly rejected physical violence to advance His kingdom. For more, visit our Prophets section.
Questions to Consider
- Why do authentic hadiths define jihad as warfare if it really means inner struggle?
- Why does Islamic law explicitly define jihad as fighting non-Muslims?
- If jihad meant inner struggle, why did Muhammad lead military campaigns?
- Why did Islamic empires expand through warfare if jihad wasn't military?
- Is it honest to reinterpret jihad to make Islam more palatable to Westerners?
Conclusion
The claim that jihad primarily means "inner struggle" is a modern apologetic that contradicts Islamic texts, classical scholarship, and historical practice. While Muslims may personally reinterpret jihad, the weight of authentic sources is overwhelming: jihad is warfare in Allah's cause.
This doesn't mean all Muslims support violence. It does mean that Islam's sacred texts and traditions make physical warfare central to the faith in ways Christianity does not.
Related articles: The Sword Verse | Offensive vs Defensive Jihad | Muhammad's Military Campaigns