Muhammad's Military Campaigns: A Historical Analysis

The Warrior Prophet

Muhammad is unique among major religious founders in leading extensive military campaigns. Unlike Jesus, Buddha, or other spiritual leaders, Muhammad personally commanded armies, ordered raids, approved assassinations, and participated in warfare. This isn't anti-Muslim propaganda—it's documented in Islam's most authentic sources.

According to Islamic historians, Muhammad led or ordered approximately 86 military expeditions during the last decade of his life (622-632 CE). These are called ghazwa (غَزْوَة) when Muhammad participated and sariyya (سَرِيَّة) when he sent others.

The Two Phases of Muhammad's Life

Meccan Period (610-622 CE): Weakness and Peace

During his first 13 years as a prophet, Muhammad had few followers and no military power. Quranic verses from this period emphasize patience, persuasion, and tolerance:

• "There is no compulsion in religion" (2:256)
• "To you your religion, and to me my religion" (109:6)
• "Invite to the way of your Lord with wisdom and good instruction" (16:125)

Medinan Period (622-632 CE): Power and Warfare

After fleeing to Medina, Muhammad gained followers, wealth, and military strength. Verses from this period command warfare:

• "Kill the polytheists wherever you find them" (9:5)
• "Fight those who do not believe in Allah" (9:29)
• "Fighting has been enjoined upon you" (2:216)

Muhammad's behavior changed with his circumstances. This trajectory—from peace when weak to violence when strong—is documented in Islamic sources. See our article on Abrogation for more details.

Major Military Campaigns

1. Battle of Badr (624 CE)

Muhammad's first major military victory. He led 313 Muslims against a Meccan caravan and army of 1,000. Despite being outnumbered, Muslims won decisively, killing about 70 Meccans and taking 70 prisoners.

Significant events:

• Muhammad ordered the execution of two prisoners, Abu Jahl and Uqba bin Abu Mu'ayt
• Uqba begged for mercy, asking "Who will look after my children?" Muhammad replied, "Hell"
• The battle convinced many that Allah supported Muhammad
• Quran 8 (Al-Anfal) was revealed about this battle, discussing war booty distribution

2. Assassination of Ka'b ibn al-Ashraf (624 CE)

Ka'b was a Jewish poet who criticized Muhammad in verse. Muhammad asked, "Who will deal with Ka'b?" Five men volunteered, pretended friendship with Ka'b, then murdered him at night.

"Allah's Apostle said, 'Who is willing to kill Ka'b bin Al-Ashraf who has hurt Allah and His Apostle?' Thereupon Muhammad bin Maslama got up saying, 'O Allah's Apostle! Would you like that I kill him?' The Prophet said, 'Yes.'" — Sahih Bukhari 5:59:369

This established a precedent: criticizing Muhammad or Islam warranted death.

3. Battle of Uhud (625 CE)

Meccans sought revenge for Badr. The battle was initially favorable to Muslims, but ended in a stalemate with about 70 Muslims killed, including Muhammad's uncle Hamza.

Muhammad's response to defeat:

• He claimed Allah was testing believers
• Quranic verses blamed the defeat on Muslims' disobedience (3:152)
• Muhammad vowed revenge, leading to increased raids

4. Siege of Banu Qaynuqa (624 CE)

Muhammad besieged this Jewish tribe in Medina for 15 days until they surrendered. He planned to kill all the men, but was convinced to exile them instead and confiscate their property.

5. Expulsion of Banu Nadir (625 CE)

Muhammad accused this Jewish tribe of plotting to kill him and ordered them expelled. When they refused, he besieged them for 15 days, burning their date palm groves (economic warfare). They surrendered and were exiled.

"Whatever you have cut down of [their] palm trees or left standing on their trunks - it was by permission of Allah and so He would disgrace the defiantly disobedient." — Quran 59:5

A Quranic verse was revealed to justify this destruction of agricultural resources.

6. Massacre of Banu Qurayza (627 CE)

After the Battle of the Trench, Muhammad besieged the last major Jewish tribe in Medina. After their surrender:

• 600-900 men were beheaded in trenches
• Women and children were enslaved
• Muhammad took one woman, Rayhana, for himself
• The tribe's property was distributed as booty
• The killing lasted through the day and night

"Then he ordered that ditches should be dug, so they were dug in the earth, and they were brought tied by their shoulders, and were beheaded." — Sirat Rasul Allah (Ibn Ishaq)

For a detailed examination, see our article on The Banu Qurayza Massacre.

7. Treaty of Hudaybiyyah (628 CE)

Muhammad negotiated a 10-year peace treaty with Mecca. However, he broke it after only 2 years when he became strong enough to conquer Mecca. This treaty is studied as an example of using peace strategically when weak. See our article on The Treaty of Hudaybiyyah.

8. Conquest of Khaybar (628 CE)

Muhammad attacked the wealthy Jewish oasis of Khaybar. After conquest:

• The Jewish leader Kinana was tortured to reveal hidden treasure
• Kinana was killed, and Muhammad married his widow Safiyya the same day
• Jews were allowed to remain as sharecroppers, paying half their produce to Muslims
• This became the model for jizya (tribute tax) on conquered peoples

9. Conquest of Mecca (630 CE)

With 10,000 fighters, Muhammad conquered Mecca with minimal resistance. He ordered the execution of several people, including:

• Abdullah ibn Sa'd (his former scribe who had apostated)
• Miqyas ibn Subabah (who had killed a Muslim)
• Al-Huwayrith (accused of harassing Muhammad's daughters)
• Two singing slave girls who had sung satirical songs about Muhammad

Some were pardoned when they converted or begged for mercy.

10. Battle of Hunayn (630 CE)

Shortly after conquering Mecca, Muhammad fought the Hawazin tribe with 12,000 men. After victory, 6,000 captives were taken, mostly women and children who were distributed as slaves.

11. Expedition to Tabuk (630 CE)

Muhammad's last military campaign, leading 30,000 men north toward Byzantine territory. No battle occurred, but he collected tribute from Christian and Jewish communities.

Tactics and Methods

Muhammad employed various warfare tactics:

• Raids (ghazwa): Surprise attacks on caravans and settlements
• Sieges: Surrounding and starving opponents into submission
• Assassinations: Ordering the killing of critics and opponents
• Economic warfare: Destroying crops and resources
• Psychological warfare: Terror tactics to frighten enemies (see Terror in the Hearts)
• Deception (taqiyya): Using lies and false promises in warfare
• Torture: Extracting information or treasure from captives
• Enslavement: Taking women and children as slaves

Muhammad's Own Words About Fighting

"I have been ordered to fight against the people until they testify that none has the right to be worshipped but Allah." — Sahih Bukhari 1:2:24

"I have been made victorious with terror." — Sahih Bukhari 4:52:220

"The person who participates in jihad in Allah's cause and nothing compels him to do so except belief in Allah and His Apostles, will be recompensed by Allah either with a reward, or booty, or will be admitted to Paradise." — Sahih Bukhari 1:2:35

Distribution of War Booty

Muhammad personally received 20% of all plunder (Quran 8:41). This made him extremely wealthy—he distributed women, slaves, livestock, gold, and land among his followers and kept substantial portions for himself.

The Scale of Warfare

In just 10 years (622-632 CE), Muhammad was involved in:

• Approximately 86 military expeditions
• 27 battles where he personally fought
• 59 raids where he sent others
• Numerous assassinations of critics
• Multiple sieges and exiles
• Thousands of people killed
• Thousands enslaved

On average, this meant a military expedition every 1.4 months during his time in Medina.

Comparison with Jesus Christ

The contrast could not be more stark:

Jesus Christ	Muhammad
Led zero military campaigns	Led approximately 86 military expeditions
Killed no one	Ordered hundreds killed
Owned no slaves	Owned and traded slaves
Accumulated no wealth	Became wealthy through warfare
"Love your enemies"	"Be harsh to disbelievers"
Died for others	Killed others
"My kingdom is not of this world"	Established an earthly political empire

For more on Jesus in Islam vs. Christianity, see our Prophets section.

Questions to Consider

1. Can someone who led 86 military campaigns be called the "mercy to mankind"?
2. Why did Muhammad's message change from peace to violence when he gained power?
3. Is a prophet who orders assassinations of critics morally trustworthy?
4. What does Muhammad's military career reveal about the nature of Islam?
5. Can Muhammad's example justify modern Islamic violence?

Conclusion

Muhammad's military campaigns are not anti-Islamic lies—they're documented in Islam's most authentic sources and celebrated in Islamic history. The sheer scale and frequency of warfare during the last decade of his life reveals that violence was central to his mission, not peripheral. For those investigating Islam, understanding Muhammad's military career is essential to understanding the religion he founded.

Related articles: Banu Qurayza Massacre | What is Jihad? | Treaty of Hudaybiyyah